3D Bioprinting for esophageal tissue regeneration: A review

The esophagus connects the mouth to the stomach and is mandatory for survival in all organisms. However, this vital organ is non-regenerative and poses a risk due to various infections and congenital disabilities. The current medical interventions available are not highly effective for treatment, and hence tissue engineering strategy is adopted to mimic the native microenvironment and fabricate tubular scaffolds to address the partial and full-length defects of the esophagus. The robotically controlled three-dimensional (3D) bioprinter is suitable for printing the tubular organ with the desired bioinks, comprising growth-stimulating materials and live cells. This review details the state-of-the-art alternatives for esophageal tissue engineering. We have presented the literature describing the anatomy and various esophagus diseases, tissue regeneration strategies, and how bioprinting can support the development of artificial intelligence esophageal. The 3D printing with suitable bioinks, stem cell interventions, and invivo models for esophagus regeneration are discussed. Graphic abstract: [Figure not available: see fulltext.]