Insights of 3D bioprinting and focusing the paradigm shift towards 4D printing for biomedical applications

Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting is a versatile technique for biomedical applications, and includes organ printing, 3D disease model development, and drug delivery. The bioprintable materials combined with live cells have been utilized as bioinks in 3D bioprinter to fabricate versatile 3D printed structures. The 3D structures developed with smart and responsive materials can change their dimension, a technique similar to self-assembly, unfolding a new branch termed as four-dimensional (4D) printing. This manuscript reviews the details of various bioprintable materials and 3D printers, the application of 3D printing in biomedicine, smart materials, and stimulations for 4D printing. Further, this article also summarizes the regulatory issues and the limitations involved with the bioprinting. The advancements in 3D and 4D printing technology have significantly contributed to the medical field, and adequate research and amalgamation of engineering and science ideas will strengthen the application of this technology and bring solution for the existing problems. Graphical abstract: [Figure not available: see fulltext.]